Saudi Arabia, governed as an absolute monarchy under a strict interpretation of Sunni Islam, has long faced scrutiny for its religious freedom policies, particularly regarding the treatment of Shia Muslims and other religious minorities. As the birthplace of Islam, the kingdom enforces a legal and social framework that prioritizes Sunni Islam, specifically its Wahhabi doctrine. While this religious homogeneity is central to Saudi identity, it has led to systemic discrimination against minority groups, severely limiting their religious and civic freedoms.
Legal and Institutional Framework
Saudi Arabia’s Basic Law, which functions as the country’s de facto constitution, declares that the Quran and the Sunna are the supreme sources of law. This legal framework underpins a rigid enforcement of Islamic practices as interpreted by the state’s religious authorities. Non-Sunni Muslims and non-Muslims face significant restrictions, as public practice of any religion other than state-sanctioned Sunni Islam is strictly prohibited. Apostasy—defined as conversion from Islam—is punishable by death, underscoring the state’s intolerance for religious divergence.
The state apparatus, including the religious police (Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice), has historically monitored and suppressed activities deemed un-Islamic. While their power has been curbed in recent years under Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman’s reforms, these restrictions remain deeply entrenched for religious minorities.
Discrimination Against Shia Muslims
Shia Muslims, who make up approximately 10–15% of Saudi Arabia’s population, face systemic discrimination in nearly every aspect of public life. Their religious practices are heavily monitored and often curtailed. The construction of Shia mosques and religious centres is tightly restricted, and existing mosques are subject to constant surveillance. Public celebrations of Shia religious events such as Ashura are discouraged or outright banned in many parts of the kingdom, forcing these communities to practice their faith in secrecy.
In education, Shia students often encounter curricula that portray their religious beliefs negatively, labeling them as deviations from true Islam. This bias perpetuates societal prejudice against Shia communities. Additionally, there have been widespread reports of discriminatory treatment from teachers and peers, further alienating Shia youth from full participation in Saudi society.
Economic discrimination compounds these challenges. Shia Muslims are systematically excluded from high-ranking positions in government and the military, with few exceptions. In the private sector, they encounter barriers to employment and advancement, leaving many economically marginalized. This exclusion from economic and political power reinforces a cycle of poverty and disenfranchisement within Shia-majority areas such as the Eastern Province, where much of the country’s oil wealth is concentrated.
Repression and Violence
Beyond structural discrimination, Shia communities in Saudi Arabia have endured violence and repression. In recent years, extremist groups, including ISIS, have carried out attacks on Shia mosques and gatherings, resulting in significant loss of life. The government has condemned these attacks but has been criticized for failing to provide adequate protection for Shia communities. Many believe this reflects broader societal indifference toward Shia safety and well-being.
The government itself has also played a role in repressing Shia activists and leaders. Over the past decade, arrests, imprisonments, and even executions of prominent Shia figures have escalated. Sheikh Nimr Baqir al-Nimr, a vocal critic of the government’s treatment of Shia Muslims, was executed in 2016 on charges of inciting violence, though international human rights organizations widely condemned the trial as politically motivated. His death sparked outrage within Saudi Arabia’s Shia community and drew global condemnation, highlighting the kingdom’s harsh approach toward dissenting voices.
The International Response
Saudi Arabia’s treatment of Shia Muslims and other religious minorities has drawn sustained criticism from international organizations. The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) has consistently designated Saudi Arabia as a “country of particular concern” for its severe violations of religious freedom. Reports from bodies such as USCIRF and the U.S. State Department emphasize the lack of significant progress in addressing these issues, pointing to the continued persecution of Shia activists, suppression of minority religious practices, and the fostering of societal prejudice through state-controlled institutions.
Minority Rights Group International has also highlighted the plight of Saudi Arabia’s Shia population, documenting patterns of discrimination, economic exclusion, and religious repression. The group notes that despite the kingdom’s attempts to present itself as modernizing under Vision 2030, these reforms have largely bypassed minority communities, leaving the core issues of religious inequality unaddressed.
Conclusion
While Saudi Arabia has embarked on limited reforms aimed at combating religious extremism and curbing the power of conservative clerics, these measures have done little to improve conditions for Shia Muslims and other minorities. The kingdom’s legal framework, coupled with deeply ingrained societal attitudes, continues to suppress religious freedom and marginalize non-Sunni communities. For true progress to occur, Saudi Arabia must undertake comprehensive reforms that guarantee equal rights and protections for all religious groups, ensuring that freedom of belief is respected in both law and practice. Until such changes are implemented, the kingdom’s religious minorities will remain excluded from the promise of equality and justice.
