1.1. The legislative framework
In Saudi Arabia, online expression is heavily restricted by a combination of laws, regulations, and enforcement practices that aim to control the flow of information and suppress dissent. The government employs various mechanisms to monitor and censor online content, targeting individuals and platforms that challenge its authority or promote views deemed contrary to the state’s interests. The restrictive legal framework in Saudi Arabia is anchored by several key pieces of legislation that collectively stifle online expression. The Anti-Cyber Crime Law, the Anti-Terrorism Law, and the Press and Publications Law are among the most significant. These laws grant the government extensive powers to control digital content, often under broad and vaguely defined provisions that can be easily interpreted to justify the suppression of dissent. Collectively, the legislative framework creates a hostile environment for freedom of speech and democratic discourse in Saudi Arabia. The vague and overly broad language of the legislation provides authorities with ample discretion to target individuals who express dissenting opinions or challenge the status quo. The fear of reprisals and harsh penalties leads many individuals to self-censor or avoid discussing sensitive topics online, undermining efforts to foster open debate, accountability, and social progress.
Several key laws regulate online content in Saudi Arabia, including the Anti-Cyber Crime Law, the Anti-Terrorism Law, and the Press and Publications Law. These laws are often interpreted broadly to criminalize dissent and restrict freedom of expression:
– Anti-Cyber Crime Law: Enacted in 2007, the Anti-Cyber Crime Law[3] was introduced to combat cybercrimes such as hacking, identity theft, and online fraud. However, it contains provisions that grant authorities broad powers to monitor, censor, and prosecute individuals for expressing dissenting opinions or sharing content deemed offensive or subversive. Article 6 of the law, for example, criminalizes the production, preparation, transmission, or storage of material that violates public order, religious values, or public morals. This vague and overly broad language is often used to target activists, journalists, and social media users who criticize the government or advocate for political or social change.
– Anti-Terrorism Law: The Anti-Terrorism Law, enacted in 2014, includes provisions that define terrorism broadly and give authorities sweeping powers to crack down on perceived threats to national security[4]. The law has been used to target individuals and groups engaged in peaceful dissent or activism, including human rights defenders, journalists, and religious minorities. Under the purpose of combating terrorism, the government has arrested and prosecuted individuals for expressing dissenting opinions online, sharing critical content, or participating in protests. In November 2017, a new antiterrorism law was enacted, featuring expansive definitions of terrorist acts. Under this legislation, individuals face criminal penalties ranging from 5 to 10 years’ imprisonment for depicting the king or crown prince, directly or indirectly, “in a manner that brings religion or justice into disrepute.” Moreover, using one’s “social status or media influence to promote terrorism” can result in a 15-year sentence[5]. Originally established in 2008 to handle terrorism cases, the Specialized Criminal Court (SCC) has been widely utilized to incarcerate human rights activists and defenders. International rights organizations have criticized the antiterrorism law for its ambiguity and its deviation from international human rights standards. These groups argue that the law suppresses criticism and dissent by means of prosecution and the threat of arrest and detention.
– Press and Publications Law: Originally introduced to regulate traditional media outlets, the Press and Publications Law was extended in 2011 to cover online content as well. The law requires all online publishers, including bloggers and social media influencers, to obtain a license from the government. It also imposes strict controls on the dissemination of news and information, prohibiting the publication of anything that could harm public order, religious values, public morals, and the safety and security of the state[6]. This broad censorship authority allows the government to suppress critical reporting and dissenting voices, stifling independent journalism and free expression online.
1.2. The Role of Social Media Platforms
Social media platforms play a significant role in shaping digital rights discourse in Saudi Arabia. While they provide a space for individuals to express themselves and mobilize for social causes, they are also subject to government oversight and censorship. Platforms like Twitter, Instagram, and YouTube are commonly used by activists and human rights defenders to raise awareness of issues and advocate for change, but they are also vulnerable to censorship and harassment. Social media companies themselves play a dual role in the digital rights discourse. On one hand, they provide platforms that facilitate free expression and the mobilization of social movements. On the other hand, they are often complicit in government censorship and surveillance efforts. Social media companies have been criticized for complying with government requests to remove content or share user data, sometimes without adequate transparency or due process. This compliance raises significant ethical questions about the responsibility of social media companies to protect user rights and uphold freedom of expression. The dynamics between social media platforms, government oversight, and user activism profoundly impact public discourse in Saudi Arabia. While social media enables unprecedented levels of connectivity and information sharing, the pervasive threat of censorship and repression limits the scope of open debate. Many users self-censor to avoid potential repercussions, leading to a constrained public sphere where critical voices are often silenced or marginalized.
The Saudi government tightly controls news outlets across all mediums, including digital platforms, and uses various online tactics to create an illusion of popular support for its policies. Critics believe the government employs an “electronic army” to promote pro government views, especially on social media. These trolls use “hashtag poisoning” to disseminate popular hashtags with unrelated or opposing posts, disrupting criticism. According to a report by the University of Oxford’s Computational Propaganda Research Project[7], Saudi Arabia is one of seven countries identified by Facebook and Twitter for using these platforms to influence global audiences. In addition, the Saudi government has invested in online outlets to promote its narrative, partnering with foreign news organizations like Bloomberg and the Independent[8]. In 2019, Facebook removed several hundred government-linked pages involved in influence campaigns, and Twitter blocked tens of thousands of accounts amplifying pro government messages[9].
The role of social media in Saudi Arabia also has broader implications for digital rights in the region and globally. Despite their potential for empowerment, social media platforms in Saudi Arabia operate under strict government oversight. Authorities monitor these platforms closely, using sophisticated technologies and human resources to track and censor content and suppress dissent. This includes removing posts deemed objectionable, blocking accounts, and even shutting down entire platforms during critical moments. The government exercises pressure on social media companies to comply with local laws and regulations, often requiring them to provide data on users or take down specific content.
1.3. Digital Violence Against Human Rights Defenders and Saudi Government’s Surveillance
Human rights defenders and activists in Saudi Arabia face significant risks of digital violence, including online harassment, surveillance, and cyberattacks. State-sponsored actors and anonymous trolls often target activists with smear campaigns, threats, and intimidation tactics to silence dissent and deter others from speaking out. Such attacks not only undermine the work of human rights defenders but also create a climate of fear and self-censorship.
The Saudi government employs sophisticated surveillance technologies to monitor the digital activities of human rights defenders. This includes hacking into personal devices to gather information, intercepting communications, and installing spyware. Authorities regularly monitor websites, blogs, chat rooms, social media, emails, and text messages. After lifting the ban on online voice and video call services in September 2017, the government announced that all calls would be monitored and censored[10]. The country has heavily invested in advanced surveillance systems. Citizen Lab reported that spyware from the Israeli firm NSO Group has been used to target activists and dissidents in Saudi Arabia. In December 2021, Citizen Lab noted that Saudi authorities likely switched from NSO’s Pegasus spyware[11] to Predator spyware from Cytrox[12], a North Macedonia-based developer[13]. Meta also indicated that Cytrox spyware is likely used by Saudi entities[14]. These measures not only violate privacy but also create a pervasive atmosphere of fear.
Doxxing is another prevalent form of digital violence, where personal information such as home addresses, phone numbers, and private communications are published online without consent. This exposes human rights defenders to physical threats and harassment, further endangering their safety and that of their families. The exposure of private information is intended to intimidate and silence activists by making them vulnerable to both state and non-state actors. Pro-government trolls and bot networks often engage in coordinated online attacks to overwhelm and intimidate human rights defenders. These coordinated efforts flood social media with abusive messages, false accusations, and propaganda, making it difficult for activists to maintain a presence online. The scale and intensity of these attacks can lead to psychological distress and burnout among defenders, reducing their capacity to continue their work.
Notably, online gender-based violence[15] is a significant issue, particularly for women human rights defenders who challenge societal norms and advocate for gender equality and human rights. Women activists in Saudi Arabia frequently receive threats of physical and sexual violence. These threats can be explicit, such as threats of rape or physical assault, or more implicit, suggesting potential harm to the individual or their family members. Such threats create a climate of fear and discourage women from participating in online activism. Moreover, smear campaigns are used as coordinated efforts to damage an individual’s reputation by spreading false or misleading information about them. Women activists are often targeted with rumors and defamatory content intended to discredit their work and undermine their credibility. OGBV has a significant silencing effect on women activists. Fear of harassment and violence leads many women to self-censor, avoiding discussing controversial topics or participating in public debates. It refrains other women from engaging in activism or public life and discourages women activists from speaking out or participating in advocacy efforts, further marginalizing their voices in public discourse. To combat OGBV effectively, legal reforms are necessary to provide stronger protections for women online. This includes enacting specific laws that criminalize online harassment, threats, and doxxing, and ensuring that these laws are enforced fairly and consistently.
1.4. Impact on Freedom of Speech and Democratic Discourse
The pervasive threat of digital violence inevitably affects the freedom of speech in Saudi Arabia. The country has been ranked 170th out of 180 countries in the 2023 World Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders[16], reflecting the severe restrictions on freedom of expression and press freedom. As well, Freedom House’s “Freedom on the Net 2022” report rated Saudi Arabia as “Not Free,” with a score of 24 out of 100[17]. The report highlighted extensive government surveillance, censorship, and harassment of online users. In many cases, activists are arrested and charged under broad laws such as the Anti-Cyber Crime Law or the Anti-Terrorism Law, based on their social media activities. High-profile cases, such as those of Raif Badawi and Loujain al-Hathloul, demonstrate the severe consequences that can result from online dissent. Fear of reprisal leads many individuals to self-censor, avoiding the discussion of sensitive topics or criticism of the government online[18]. The limitation of public debate prevents the emergence of a civil society and undermines the development of democratic processes.
- Notable Cases
In the realm of digital rights advocacy, several high-profile cases have garnered international attention, shedding light on the challenges and threats faced by individuals exercising their rights in the digital sphere. Here, we delve into three notable cases from Saudi Arabia, each highlighting different aspects of digital rights violations and their broader implications.
2.1. Jamal Khashoggi’s case: Analysis of the assassination and its implications on digital rights
Jamal Khashoggi, a prominent Saudi journalist and former advisor to the royal family, dedicated his career to reporting on sensitive political issues and advocating for reform in Saudi Arabia[22]. As a columnist for The Washington Post, Khashoggi fearlessly criticized the Saudi government’s policies, particularly its human rights record and military intervention in Yemen. However, his vocal opposition to the government made him a target of Saudi authorities. In October 2018, Khashoggi entered the Saudi consulate in Istanbul, Turkey, to obtain documents for his upcoming marriage. Tragically, he never exited the consulate alive. Investigations later revealed that Khashoggi was brutally murdered by a team of Saudi agents who had flown in from Riyadh. The assassination, widely believed to have been ordered by high-ranking Saudi officials, lighted up a diplomatic crisis around the world[23]. The case of Jamal Khashoggi highlights the dangers faced by journalists and dissenters in the digital age. Khashoggi’s use of online platforms to express his views made him a target of digital surveillance, ultimately leading to his tragic demise. His assassination highlights the risks journalists and activists face when speaking truth to power in repressive regimes.
2.2.Raif Badawi’s case: Examination of the blogger’s imprisonment for online expression
Raif Badawi, a Saudi blogger and founder of the Free Saudi Liberals website, used his online platform to advocate for secularism, freedom of speech, and human rights in Saudi Arabia. Through his writings, Badawi challenged religious orthodoxy and called for political reform in a country known for its strict censorship laws. However, his activism caught the attention of Saudi authorities. In 2012, Badawi was arrested on charges of “insulting Islam” and “apostasy,” crimes punishable by severe penalties under Saudi law. He was subsequently convicted and sentenced to ten years in prison, as well as 1,000 lashes, a punishment that drew condemnation from human rights organizations worldwide[24]. Amnesty International reported that Badawi received his first 50 lashes in January 2015, an act that sparked global outrage and protests. According to Amnesty, the punishment was intended to be carried out over 20 weeks, but subsequent lashings were postponed due to international pressure and concerns about Badawi’s health[25]. The harsh punishment and conditions of Badawi’s imprisonment have led to severe physical and psychological suffering, underscoring the Saudi government’s ruthless approach to silencing dissent. Despite international pressure and campaigns calling for his release, Badawi remains imprisoned, enduring harsh conditions and physical abuse. Raif Badawi’s case illustrates the Saudi government’s crackdown on online dissent and the suppression of freedom of expression. His story highlights the risks activists face when using digital platforms to challenge authoritarian regimes and advocate for democratic reforms. Moreover, his continued imprisonment serves as a reminder of the ongoing struggle for human rights in Saudi Arabia.
2.3.Samar Badawi and Loujain Al-Hathloul’s cases: the arrest of the women’s rights activists for their online exposure
Samar Badawi and Loujain Al-Hathloul, two prominent women’s rights activists in Saudi Arabia, have been instrumental in advocating for gender equality and civil liberties in the kingdom. Their efforts, both online and offline, have challenged discriminatory laws and societal norms, aiming to bring about significant reforms that enhance women’s rights and empower marginalized communities. Samar Badawi, a recipient of the U.S. State Department’s International Women of Courage Award, has long been a vocal advocate for women’s rights in Saudi Arabia. Through her online activism and advocacy work, she has addressed issues such as the guardianship system and the right to drive, advocating for gender equality and greater freedoms for women. However, her outspokenness made her a target for the Saudi authorities. In 2018, Samar Badawi was arrested by Saudi authorities on charges of “promoting women’s rights” and “contacting foreign entities.” This arrest became relevant among the human rights community and highlighted the Saudi government’s determination to silence dissent, particularly among women activists. In June 2021, Badawi was released after she served a three years’ sentence. Her case underscored the risks faced by individuals who use digital platforms to amplify marginalized voices and challenge societal norms.
Similarly, Loujain Al-Hathloul, renowned for her activism against the female driving ban in Saudi Arabia, has faced relentless persecution for her advocacy work. Al-Hathloul’s efforts to challenge gender norms and promote women’s rights through online activism garnered both admiration and scrutiny from the Saudi authorities[26]. Her activism began gaining significant attention in 2014 when she attempted to drive into Saudi Arabia from the United Arab Emirates, openly defying the ban. She live-streamed her action, drawing widespread attention and international support. However, this act of defiance led to her arrest and a 73-day detention, marking the beginning of a series of state reprisals against her. In 2018, she was detained and subjected to arbitrary detention, alleged torture, and solitary confinement, signaling the Saudi government’s suppression of dissent. During her detention, Al-Hathloul faced severe mistreatment. Reports from her family and human rights organizations, including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, allege that she was subjected to torture, including electric shocks, flogging, and sexual harassment, during interrogation sessions. She was also held in solitary confinement for extended periods, which is considered a form of psychological torture. Al-Hathloul was charged with various offenses, including attempting to destabilize the kingdom, working with foreign entities to harm national security, and advancing a foreign agenda. In December 2020, she was sentenced to nearly six years in prison by Saudi Arabia’s Specialized Criminal Court, which handles terrorism-related cases. This court is often criticized for its lack of independence and the harsh sentences it imposes on activists and dissenters. Despite her release on probation in February 2021, Al-Hathloul remains under strict travel restrictions and a suspended sentence that could see her re-imprisoned at any time if she engages in further activism[27].
The cases of Samar Badawi and Loujain Al-Hathloul serve as reminders of the dangers faced by women activists in Saudi Arabia, particularly those who engage in digital activism. Their stories highlight the gendered nature of online repression, with women activists facing heightened risks and scrutiny for their advocacy work. These cases underscore the urgent need for greater international attention and solidarity in support of women’s rights defenders and digital activists in Saudi Arabia.
- International community, Challenges and Recommendations
The international community has consistently applied pressure on Saudi Arabia to reform its digital policies, particularly regarding surveillance, censorship, and human rights abuses. Organizations such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and Citizen Lab have documented and condemned the misuse of surveillance technology against activists, journalists, and political dissidents. This global scrutiny has heightened awareness and fostered calls for accountability, which has led to some policy changes and encouraged greater transparency. Nevertheless, significant challenges remain in improving digital rights within the kingdom. The Saudi government’s entrenched commitment to maintaining strict control over information flow and surveillance presents a considerable obstacle. Authorities often justify extensive monitoring and censorship as vital for national security and social stability. This resistance to change is deeply rooted in the political and social fabric of the country, making substantial reforms difficult to achieve. Alongside, the rapid development and deployment of sophisticated surveillance technologies by firms like NSO Group and Cytrox pose ongoing challenges. These tools provide extensive monitoring capabilities that are difficult to counter with existing regulatory frameworks.
Moreover, Saudi Arabia’s legal system lacks comprehensive protections for digital rights, making it difficult to safeguard privacy and freedom of expression. The absence of independent judicial oversight exacerbates the situation, as there are few checks and balances to prevent abuse of surveillance powers. Current laws are often broadly interpreted to justify actions against dissent, leaving little room for legal recourse. Last, cultural norms and social expectations in Saudi Arabia can also impede efforts to enhance digital rights. Traditional views on authority and dissent, coupled with limited public awareness of digital privacy issues, create an environment where government surveillance is more readily accepted or overlooked.
The following recommendations aim to address these challenges by leveraging international collaboration, legal reforms, technological safeguards, and educational initiatives. By implementing these measures, Saudi Arabia can foster a more secure, informed, and empowered digital society.
- Adopt International Standards: Align national laws and practices with international standards and guidelines on digital rights and privacy, such as those established by the United Nations and the European Union.
- Establish Comprehensive Digital Rights Legislation: Enact laws that explicitly protect digital privacy, freedom of expression, and data security. These laws should include clear definitions and provisions that limit government surveillance and ensure judicial oversight.
- Encouraging Corporate Responsibility: Technology companies supplying surveillance tools should be encouraged or compelled to adopt rigorous human rights policies.
- Promoting Digital Literacy: Implement nationwide programs to enhance digital literacy among citizens. This includes educating individuals on the importance of digital privacy, recognizing online threats, and understanding how to use technology safely and responsibly. Digital literacy curriculums should be integrated into the education system from an early age, emphasizing critical thinking and safe online practices.
- Creating Safe Online Spaces: Establish safe online platforms and forums where citizens can learn about digital rights, share experiences, and seek advice without fear of surveillance or reprisal. These platforms can be moderated by trusted organizations to ensure they remain secure and supportive.
- Safeguarding Journalistic Freedom: Ensure protections for journalists and media outlets to operate freely without fear of retribution. This includes decriminalizing defamation and other speech-related offenses that are often used to silence dissent.
[1]Economy Middle East. (2023). Saudi Arabia internet penetration reaches record high. Economy Middle East. https://economymiddleeast.com/news/saudi-arabia-internet-penetration-reaches-report/#:~:text=The%20report%20reveals%20that%20a,universal%20access%20across%20its%20population
[2] Context News. (2023). Saudi surveillance city: Would you sell your data to The Line? Context News. https://www.context.news/digital-rights/saudi-surveillance-city-would-you-sell-your-data-to-the-line
[3] Bureau of Experts at the Council of Ministers. (n.d.). Law details. Bureau of Experts at the Council of Ministers. https://laws.boe.gov.sa/BoeLaws/Laws/LawDetails/25df73d6-0f49-4dc5-b010-a9a700f2ec1d/2
[4]Americans for Democracy & Human Rights in Bahrain (ADHRB). (n.d.). Mapping the Saudi state: Human rights abuses in Saudi Arabia. United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/RuleOfLaw/NegativeEffectsTerrorism/ADHRB.pdf
[5] Human Rights Watch. (2017, November 23). Saudi Arabia: New counterterrorism law enables abuse. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/11/23/saudi-arabia-new-counterterrorism-law-enables-abuse
[6] U.S. Department of State. (2023). 2022 Report on international religious freedom: Saudi Arabia. U.S. Embassy & Consulates in Saudi Arabia. https://sa.usembassy.gov/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom-for-saudi-arabia/
[7] Oxford Internet Institute. (2019). CyberTroop Report 2019. Retrieved from https://demtech.oii.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/12/2019/09/CyberTroop-Report19.pdf
[8] New York Times. (2018, October 20). Saudi Arabia’s clout in Washington is being questioned. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/20/us/politics/saudi-image-campaign-twitter.html
[9] Facebook. (2019, August 1). Removing Coordinated Inauthentic Behavior From UAE, Egypt and Saudi Arabia. Facebook Newsroom. Retrieved from https://about.fb.com/news/2019/08/cib-uae-egypt-saudi-arabia/
[10] Reuters. (2017, September 21). Saudi lifting ban on Skype, WhatsApp calls, but will monitor them. Reuters. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saudi-telecoms-ban/saudi-lifting-ban-on-skype-whatsapp-calls-but-will-monitor-them-idUSKCN1BW12L
[11] Pegasus spyware, developed by the Israeli cyber-intelligence firm NSO Group, is a sophisticated tool designed for covert surveillance. Established in 2010, NSO Group created Pegasus to enable government agencies and law enforcement to monitor and extract data from mobile devices.
[12] Similar to NSO Group’s Pegasus, Cytrox spyware is designed for covert monitoring and data extraction from mobile devices.
[13] Citizen Lab. (2021, December 14). Pegasus vs. Predator: Dissidents Doubly Infected iPhone Reveals Cytrox Mercenary Spyware. Retrieved from https://citizenlab.ca/2021/12/pegasus-vs-predator-dissidents-doubly-infected-iphone-reveals-cytrox-mercenary-spyware/
[14] Facebook. (2021). Threat Report on the Surveillance-for-Hire Industry. Retrieved from https://about.fb.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Threat-Report-on-the-Surveillance-for-Hire-Industry.pdf
[15] Online Gender-Based Violence refers to harmful behaviors directed at individuals based on their gender, facilitated through digital platforms and communication technologies. This form of violence includes harassment, threats, stalking, and exploitation, and it disproportionately affects women and gender minorities.
[16] Reporters Without Borders. (n.d.). Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from https://rsf.org/en/country/saudi-arabia
[17] Freedom House. (2022). Saudi Arabia. Freedom on the Net 2022. Retrieved from https://freedomhouse.org/country/saudi-arabia/freedom-net/2022
[18] Reporters Without Borders. (2023, April 20). RSF issues warning about Saudi Arabia’s press freedom index ranking. Reporters Without Borders. Retrieved from https://rsf.org/en/rsf-issues-warning-about-saudi-arabias-press-freedom-index-ranking
[19] Hoffmann, Amanda, and Emily J. Knox. “The Role of Digital Literacy in Advocacy for Intellectual Freedom.” The Library Quarterly: Information, Community, Policy, vol. 90, no. 4, 2020, pp. 372–386.
[20] Saudi Arabia Vision 2030. (n.d.). Home. Retrieved from https://www.vision2030.gov.sa/en/
[21] DataReportal. (2024). Digital 2024: Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2024-saudi-arabia
[22] Amnesty International. (2023, September 21). Saudi Arabia: Still no justice for state-sanctioned murder of Jamal Khashoggi five years on. Amnesty International. Retrieved from https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/09/saudi-arabia-still-no-justice-for-state-sanctioned-murder-of-jamal-khashoggi-five-years-on/
[23] Washington Post. (2018, December 21). Jamal Khashoggi’s final months: An exile in the long shadow of Saudi Arabia. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/jamal-khashoggis-final-months-an-exile-in-the-long-shadow-of-saudi-arabia/2018/12/21/d6fc68c2-0476-11e9-b6a9-0aa5c2fcc9e4_story.html
[24] Amnesty International. (2015, June 7). Saudi Arabia: Raif Badawi sentence a “dark day” for free speech. Amnesty International. Retrieved from https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2015/06/saudi-arabia-raif-badawi-sentence-dark-day/
[25] Amnesty International. (2016, January 6). Saudi Arabia: A year of bloody repression since flogging of Raif Badawi. Amnesty International. Retrieved from https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2016/01/saudi-arabia-a-year-of-bloody-repression-since-flogging-of-raif-badawi-2/
[26] Amnesty International. (2018, June 6). Saudi Arabia: Release women human rights defenders. Amnesty International. Retrieved from https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/06/saudi-arabia-release-women-human-rights-defenders/
[27] Human Rights Watch. (2021, February 10). Saudi Arabia: Prominent women’s rights activist released. Human Rights Watch. Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/02/10/saudi-arabia-prominent-womens-rights-activist-released
